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brief overview of COPD covering pathology, clinical features, investigations, radiology, and pharmacology: **Pathology:** COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease) is characterized by persistent airflow limitation due to chronic inflammation of the airways and lung tissue, primarily caused by exposure to harmful particles or gases, such as cigarette smoke. **Clinical Features:** Common clinical features of COPD include: - Shortness of breath (dyspnea) - Chronic cough - Excessive production of mucus (sputum) - Wheezing - Chest tightness **Investigations:** COPD diagnosis and assessment may involve: - Pulmonary function tests (spirometry) to measure lung capacity and airflow limitation. - Imaging studies like chest X-rays or CT scans to assess lung structure and rule out other conditions. - Arterial blood gas analysis to determine oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood. **Radiology:** Chest X-rays may reveal signs of COPD, such as hyperinflation of the lungs, flatte